And what does the world want?

The United States mediated, Europe hosted, the UN set the frame, and the Arab states put an initiative of their own on the table. Here you can see who is involved, what each brings, what critics say, and which plans were published along the way.

11 min read

No agreement was signed alone

In almost every agreement on this site, someone from outside was in the room. US President Jimmy Carter signed the peace with Egypt as witness,¹ the talks that produced Oslo were held in secret in Norway,² and the 2025 Gaza ceasefire was guaranteed by four states.³ Outside powers have their own interests too: security, influence, the economy, opinion at home.

Who is involved and what each brings

The United States

The central mediator since 1974

Role: Mediator, host and witness: from Kissinger's shuttles,⁴ through Camp David⁵ and Madrid,⁶ to the Gaza plan and the framework with Lebanon.⁷⁸
What they bring: Guarantees, monitoring and money: American monitoring stations in Sinai in 1975,⁴ a third of the funding of the Sinai peacekeeping force,⁹ and 1.3 billion dollars a year in military aid to Egypt, according to the Congressional Research Service (2015).¹⁰
What critics say: The Palestinians rejected the 2020 plan, drawn up without them,¹¹ and said the Abraham Accords bypassed them.¹² Britain declined to join the Board of Peace for Gaza.¹³
As of October 2026: Chairs the Board of Peace in Gaza⁷ and mediates with Lebanon and Syria. Phase two in Gaza is stuck,¹⁴ the Lebanon framework is stuck,¹⁵ and nothing has been signed with Syria.¹⁶

No other state appears on so many pages of this site: as mediator, host and witness, and sometimes as the author of the plan itself.

Office of the Historian: shuttle diplomacy, 1974–1975

Saudi Arabia and the Arab League

From suspending Egypt in 1979 to offering full peace in 2002

Role: In 1979 the League suspended Egypt over its peace with Israel.¹⁸ In 2002, on Crown Prince Abdullah's initiative, the League itself offered full peace: the Arab Peace Initiative.¹⁹
What they bring: Full withdrawal to the 1967 lines, a Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital and an agreed solution for refugees; in return, an end to the conflict and normal relations with all Arab states.¹⁹ In 2013 a League delegation accepted small, agreed land swaps.²⁰
What critics say: According to the Washington Institute, Israel objected to the reference to Resolution 194 and to full withdrawal, and no Israeli government has adopted the initiative.²⁰ The text is short, with no maps or timetable.¹⁹
As of October 2026: Saudi Arabia has not joined the Abraham Accords. According to Al-Monitor (July 2026), it wants an irreversible path to a Palestinian state first, and Trump has made a civil nuclear deal conditional on its joining.²¹

The initiative is an offer, not an agreement. In 2020 the Abraham Accords showed that Arab states can open relations with Israel without its conditions being met.¹⁷

Text of the Arab Peace Initiative (UN)

Egypt and Jordan

Peace partners turned mediators, hosts and guarantors

Role: Egypt signed peace in 1979,¹ Jordan in 1994.²² Since then they have often sat on the mediators' side: both witnessed the Interim Agreement,²³ and in October 2025 the indirect Israel–Hamas talks took place in Sharm el-Sheikh.²⁴
What they bring: Egypt: a border with Gaza, a meeting place and a guarantee; the stabilization force is to secure the Strip's borders in coordination with Egypt and Israel.⁷ Jordan: a special role at the Muslim holy shrines in Jerusalem, which Israel undertook to respect.²²
What critics say: The price was recorded at the time: the Arab League suspended Egypt,¹⁸ and 23 members of Jordan's parliament voted against the treaty.²⁵
As of October 2026: Both treaties are in force, but relations are at a low: Jordan and Israel have no ambassadors in place,²⁶ and according to reports from 2025 and 2026 Egypt has no ambassador in Tel Aviv.²⁷²⁸

A state that has already made peace with Israel can talk to both sides. That is the great asset of Cairo and Amman.

Text of the Israel–Jordan peace treaty (UN)

Qatar and Turkey

Mediators and guarantors of the Gaza ceasefire

Role: Mediators between parties that do not talk directly. In 2008 Turkey mediated indirect talks between Israel and Syria.²⁹ On 13 October 2025 the leaders of Qatar and Turkey, with the United States and Egypt, signed a document guaranteeing the ceasefire.³
What they bring: A political guarantee for an arrangement the parties themselves did not sign: Israel and Hamas are not signatories of the Sharm el-Sheikh document.³⁰
What critics say: Tension between Israel and Turkey over Turkey's military presence in Syria weighs on the Israel–Syria talks.³¹¹⁶
As of October 2026: Full-scale war has not returned to Gaza, but phase two is stuck: Hamas has not been disarmed and the stabilization force has not deployed.¹⁴

A third state's guarantee does not ensure implementation. It adds an address to turn to when the deal gets stuck.

Resolution 2803 and the annexed plan (UN)

The United Nations

Resolutions that set the frame, and forces that watch the lines

Role: Mediators, observers and resolutions since 1948. UN mediator Ralph Bunche led the talks on the 1949 armistice agreements.³⁴ The resolutions themselves are listed below.
What they bring: Legitimacy and forces on the ground: UNTSO observers since 1948,³⁵ UNDOF on the Golan since 1974³⁶ and UNIFIL in Lebanon since 1978.³⁷ In 2025 the General Assembly endorsed the New York Declaration, 142 to 10.³⁸
What critics say: Israel's government rejected the New York Declaration outright,³⁹ and the US representative called it a gift to Hamas.⁴⁰ On the other hand, resolutions often stay on paper: Resolution 1701 is only partly implemented.⁴¹
As of October 2026: UNDOF's mandate runs to 31 December 2026.⁴² UNIFIL is due to end operations that day, and Lebanon has asked for a rethink.⁴¹⁴³ The mandate for the Board of Peace and the stabilization force in Gaza runs to the end of 2027.⁷

The UN has no army of its own and no way to impose a deal. Its strength is in texts that others keep coming back to: from Camp David to the 1993 recognition letters, many documents rest on Resolutions 242 and 338.³²³³

Text of Resolution 242

Europe

Host, donor and Quartet member; lately also recognising the State of Palestine

Role: European states hosted channels the parties could not hold at home: Spain the Madrid Conference,⁶ Norway the secret Oslo channel,² and Switzerland the launch of the Geneva Initiative.⁴⁴ The EU is a member of the Quartet.⁴⁵
What they bring: Money and recognition. The European Commission calls the EU the biggest provider of outside aid to the Palestinians.⁴⁶ In September 2025 France, the United Kingdom and other states recognised the State of Palestine.⁴⁷
What critics say: Israel recalled its envoys from Spain, Ireland and Norway after they recognised the State of Palestine in 2024,⁴⁸ and rejected the New York Declaration as ignoring Hamas's responsibility for the war going on.³⁹
As of October 2026: According to Security Council Report, in September 2026 France and the United Kingdom, with Canada, announced bans on importing settlement goods.⁴⁹

Europe is not one actor: some states hosted quiet channels, some recognised the State of Palestine, and EU institutions work alongside them.

Government of Norway: Norway's role in the peace process

Russia, and quiet hosts

Co-sponsor of Madrid, witness to Oslo and Quartet member

Role: The Soviet Union co-sponsored the Madrid Conference with the United States.⁶ Russian Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev signed the Declaration of Principles as witness.⁵¹ Russia is a member of the Quartet.⁴⁵
What they bring: A voice on the Security Council: Russia abstained, with China, on Resolution 2803.⁵²
What critics say: Britain explained its refusal to join the Board of Peace for Gaza partly by Russia's place on it.¹³
As of October 2026: According to Security Council Report, Russia and China see Israel's opposition to the 15-point roadmap as the main obstacle in Gaza.⁴⁹

There were other quiet hosts too. In 1977 Morocco was the setting for the secret contacts between Moshe Dayan and Egypt's Deputy Prime Minister Hassan Tuhami that came before Sadat's visit to Jerusalem.⁵⁰

UN Special Coordinator's Office: the Quartet

The resolutions everyone quotes

181 (1947): the partition plan: The General Assembly proposed two states, Jewish and Arab, and an international regime for Jerusalem. Only one state came into being.⁵³
242 (1967): land for peace, and a dispute: The Security Council called for Israeli forces to withdraw “from territories” taken in the war, in return for an end to belligerency and every state's right to live in peace.⁵⁴ Disputed: in Israel's reading, the English text has no “the”, so withdrawal from all the territories is not required; the Arab states that accepted it point to the French text and to the ban on gaining land by war, and read it as all of them.⁵⁵⁵⁶ See the page on Resolution 242.
338 (1973): ceasefire and talks: A ceasefire in the 1973 war, and negotiations to carry out 242.⁵⁷
1397 and 1515 (2002–2003): two states: A vision of two states, Israel and Palestine, and then backing for the Roadmap.⁵⁸⁵⁹
1701 (2006): Lebanon: The cessation of hostilities in Lebanon after the war with Hezbollah.⁶⁰ Only partly implemented.⁴¹
2334 (2016): settlements: Settlements have no legal validity, and building in them must stop. The United States abstained.⁶¹
2803 (2025): the Gaza plan: Backing for the US plan for Gaza, by 13 votes; China and Russia abstained.⁷⁵²

Plans and milestones at a glance

Year	What	Who	The idea in one line	What became of it
1967	Resolution 242	The Security Council, unanimously	Withdrawal from territories for an end to belligerency; how much is disputed⁵⁴⁵⁵	The basis of many later agreements³²³³
1978	Camp David autonomy framework	Egypt and Israel, mediated by Carter	Five years of Palestinian self-rule, then permanent status³²	Not implemented⁵
1980	The Venice Declaration	The nine European Community states	Security for every state in the region, Israel included, and self-determination for the Palestinians; bring the PLO into talks⁶²⁶³	A policy statement, not an agreement⁶²
1981–1982	The Fahd and Fez plans	Saudi Crown Prince Fahd; the Arab summit in Fez	Withdrawal from the 1967 territories, a Palestinian state with Jerusalem as capital, and the region's states living in peace⁶⁴⁶⁵	Adopted in 1982 as the Arab position; the guarantees clause does not name Israel⁶⁵
1982	The Reagan plan	US President Ronald Reagan	Palestinian self-rule linked to Jordan; no state and no annexation; a settlement freeze⁶⁶	Israel's cabinet rejected it unanimously;⁶⁷ in 1983 King Hussein gave up after his talks with Arafat failed⁶⁸
1988	The Algiers declaration	The Palestine National Council (PLO)	A declaration of independence of a State of Palestine;⁶⁹ an international conference based on 242 and 338, and rejection of terror⁷⁰	82 states recognised it by the end of 1988;⁷¹ mutual recognition with Israel came only in 1993³³
1991	The Madrid Conference	The US and the Soviet Union	Direct talks between Israel, its neighbours and the Palestinians⁶	No agreement; Oslo and peace with Jordan grew out of it⁶
1993	The Declaration of Principles (Oslo)	Israel and the PLO, via a Norwegian channel	Interim Palestinian self-rule; the hard questions put off to permanent status⁵¹	The interim arrangements still run; no permanent settlement⁴⁹
2000	The Clinton Parameters	US President Bill Clinton	A Palestinian state on most of the West Bank, Jerusalem by neighbourhoods, a refugee solution centred on the Palestinian state⁷²	Both sides accepted with reservations;⁷³ no agreement⁷²
2002	The Arab Peace Initiative	The Arab League, on a Saudi proposal	Withdrawal to the 1967 lines, a Palestinian state and an agreed refugee solution, for normal relations¹⁹	No Israeli government has adopted it;²⁰ still an offer
2003	The Roadmap	The Quartet	Three phases: end violence and freeze settlements, a state with provisional borders, permanent status by 2005⁷⁴	Backed by the Security Council;⁵⁹ not implemented⁷⁴
2003	The Geneva Initiative	An unofficial team led by Yossi Beilin and Yasser Abed Rabbo	A detailed permanent-status text: two states on the 1967 lines with equal land swaps⁷⁵	No government adopted it⁴⁴
2007–2008	Annapolis	The United States as host	Olmert and Abbas pledge continuous talks and a deal by the end of 2008⁷⁶	Ended without agreement, and the sides disagree about why⁷⁷
2013–2014	The Kerry talks	Secretary of State John Kerry	Nine months of Israeli–Palestinian talks⁷⁸	Ended in April 2014 without agreement; each side blames the other⁷⁸
2020	The Trump plan	The US administration	Israeli sovereignty over about 30% of the West Bank, and a demilitarised, conditional Palestinian state¹¹	The Palestinians rejected it; not implemented¹¹
2020	The Abraham Accords	The US, Israel, the UAE and Bahrain; later Morocco	Relations between Israel and Arab states; the Palestinian question stayed outside the documents¹⁷	The framework is active; Saudi Arabia has not joined⁷⁹²¹
2025	The New York Declaration	A France–Saudi conference; the General Assembly	Time-bound steps to a Palestinian state beside Israel; Hamas disarms and leaves power³⁸	Endorsed 142 to 10; Israel and the US rejected it³⁸³⁹
2025	The US plan for Gaza	President Trump; backed by Resolution 2803	A ceasefire, release of the hostages, disarming Hamas, transitional rule and an international stabilization force⁷	Phase one done; phase two stuck as of October 2026¹⁴

What almost everyone says they want

An end to war and to attacks on civilians: In 2003 the Security Council demanded an end to all violence and terror.⁵⁹ The New York Declaration condemns both the 7 October attack and Israeli attacks on civilians in Gaza.³⁸
Security for Israel: Resolution 242 speaks of every state's sovereignty in the area;⁵⁴ the Arab initiative offers an end to the conflict;¹⁹ the New York Declaration demands that Hamas disarm and offers security guarantees.³⁸
A Palestinian state beside Israel: almost everyone, not everyone: The Security Council adopted the two-state vision,⁵⁸⁵⁹ and 142 states backed the New York Declaration.³⁸ Israel's government rejects it,³⁹ and the US plan speaks only of conditions that may one day allow a path to statehood.⁷⁸⁰
Normal relations between Israel and Arab states: The Arab initiative offers them in return for withdrawal and a state.¹⁹ Under the Abraham Accords they came without that condition,¹⁷⁷⁹ and Trump is pressing Saudi Arabia to join.²¹
Rebuilding Gaza, without Hamas rule: Both the New York Declaration and the US plan say Hamas will not rule the Strip.³⁸⁷ The UN and the EU put reconstruction needs at 71.4 billion dollars over a decade.¹⁴

And where they differ

What comes first: The Arab initiative and Saudi Arabia: first a path to a Palestinian state, then normalization.¹⁹²¹ Under the Abraham Accords relations came without that condition,¹⁷ and the Palestinian leadership said it had been bypassed.¹²
Borders and Jerusalem: The Arab initiative and the New York Declaration rest on the 1967 lines.¹⁹³⁸ The Trump plan offered Israeli sovereignty over about 30% of the West Bank and nearly all of Jerusalem to Israel.¹¹ Clinton proposed dividing it by neighbourhoods.⁷²
Who runs Gaza and who secures it: The US plan: a Board of Peace, a Palestinian technocrat committee and a stabilization force.⁷ The New York Declaration: the Palestinian Authority.³⁸ Netanyahu opposes a role for the Authority in Gaza.⁸⁰ Israel demands disarmament before withdrawal, and Hamas demands withdrawal before it gives up its weapons.⁸¹
The settlements: Resolution 2334 says they have no legal validity.⁶¹ The Trump plan proposed Israeli sovereignty over them.¹¹ In September 2026 Canada, France and Britain announced bans on imports from them.⁴⁹
The UN's place, and who may mediate: Most states acted through the General Assembly; Israel and the United States rejected its decision.³⁹⁴⁰ The Palestinians rejected a US plan drawn up without them,¹¹ and Israel recalled envoys from states that recognised Palestine.⁴⁸

Sources

You do not have to agree with us. That is what the sources are for: open them, compare and check for yourself.

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Norway's involvement in the peace process in the Middle East
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US, Egypt, Qatar and Turkey sign agreement to end Gaza war at Sharm El-Sheikh summit
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Official archive U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian
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The Madrid Conference, 1991
Primary United Nations (UNISPAL) · 17 November 2025
Security Council resolution 2803 (2025) and the annexed Comprehensive Plan to End the Gaza Conflict
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Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal
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Lebanon-Israel talks to resume in Florida on 20 October: sources
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Trump says he won't proceed with nuclear deal unless Saudis join Abraham Accords
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Security Council extends critical stabilisation force in Syria
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Primary United Nations (UNISPAL) · 19 November 2003
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By agreeing to disarm, Hamas is trying to call Israel's bluff in Gaza