And what does the world want?

The United States mediated, Europe hosted, the United Nations set the framework, and the Arab states put a deal of their own on the table. This page sums up who is involved in the attempts to bring peace and quiet to the region, what each one offers, and which well-known plans were published along the way.

15 min read

No agreement was signed alone

In almost every agreement on this site there was someone from outside in the room: a mediator, a host, a witness or a guarantor. US President Jimmy Carter signed the peace treaty with Egypt as a witness¹, the talks that led to the Oslo accord were held in secret in Norway², and the 2025 Gaza ceasefire was guaranteed by four states that were not parties to the war³.

Outside powers also have interests of their own: security, influence, the economy, public opinion at home. This page maps who has been involved, what each has put on the table, and what its critics say.

Two earlier documents: Venice and the Fahd plan

The Venice Declaration of 13 June 1980, issued by the nine European Community states, linked the right of the region’s states, including Israel, to live in security with the Palestinian people’s legitimate rights and self-determination. It called for the PLO to be associated with negotiations. This was a European policy declaration, not an agreement between the parties.⁴

Crown Prince Fahd’s eight-point proposal of 7 August 1981 included Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967, a Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital, the right of the region’s countries to live in peace, and implementation guarantees. This early Saudi proposal is distinct from the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative and was not a signed agreement with Israel.⁵

Who is involved and what each brings

The United States

The central mediator since 1974

Role over the years: Mediator, host and witness: from Henry Kissinger's shuttle diplomacy after the 1973 war⁶ to the framework document with Lebanon in 2026⁷.
Main moments: The disengagements in Sinai and on the Golan; Camp David, mediated by Carter⁸; the Madrid Conference⁹; under Clinton: the Oslo ceremony, peace with Jordan, Camp David 2000 and the Parameters; under Bush: the Roadmap and Annapolis; the Kerry talks; under Trump: the 2020 plan, the Abraham Accords, the Gaza plan, the framework with Lebanon and the talks with Syria.
What it brings: Guarantees, monitoring and money: American monitoring stations in Sinai in 1975⁶; a guarantee of Israel's oil supply in 1979⁸; a third of the funding of the Multinational Force and Observers in Sinai (MFO)¹⁰; and 1.3 billion dollars a year in military aid to Egypt since 1987, according to a 2015 Congressional Research Service report¹¹. It also chairs the monitoring Mechanism in Lebanon¹².
What critics say: The Palestinians rejected the 2020 plan, which was drawn up without them¹³, and said the Abraham Accords had bypassed them¹⁴. According to the State Department's Office of the Historian, Washington failed to win Jordanian and Saudi support for Camp David⁸. The United Kingdom declined to join the Board of Peace in Gaza¹⁵.
Where it stands in 2026: As of October 2026 the United States chairs the Board of Peace in Gaza¹⁶ and mediates with Lebanon and with Syria. Phase two in Gaza is stalled¹⁷, implementation of the framework with Lebanon is stalled¹⁸, and no agreement has been signed with Syria¹⁹.

No other state appears on so many pages of this site: as mediator, host and witness, and sometimes as the author of the proposal itself.

Office of the Historian: Shuttle Diplomacy, 1974–1975

Saudi Arabia and the Arab League

From suspending Egypt in 1979 to offering a comprehensive peace in 2002

Role over the years: In 1979 the Arab League suspended Egypt after its peace with Israel²⁰. In 2002 the League itself, on a Saudi initiative, offered a comprehensive peace²¹.
Main moments: The Arab Peace Initiative was adopted at the Beirut summit in March 2002, on the proposal of Crown Prince Abdullah²¹. In 2013 a League delegation accepted minor, agreed land swaps²². In 2025 Saudi Arabia, with France, co-chaired the conference that drafted the New York Declaration²³.
What it brings: The deal at the heart of the "Saudi peace plan": full Israeli withdrawal to the 1967 lines, a Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital, and a just and agreed solution to the refugee problem. In return: an end to the conflict and normal relations with all Arab states²¹.
What critics say: According to the Washington Institute, Israeli reservations centred on the reference to Resolution 194 on refugees and on the demand for full withdrawal on all fronts; no Israeli government has adopted the initiative²². The text is short, with no security arrangements, maps or timetable²¹.
Where it stands in 2026: Saudi Arabia has not joined the Abraham Accords. According to Al-Monitor (July 2026), it wants an irreversible path to a Palestinian state before recognising Israel; that month Trump made a civil nuclear deal with Saudi Arabia conditional on its joining the accords²⁴.

The initiative is an offer, not an agreement. In 2020 the Abraham Accords showed that Arab states can establish relations with Israel even without its conditions being met²⁵.

Text of the Arab Peace Initiative on the UN website

Egypt and Jordan

Peace partners who became mediators, hosts and guarantors

Role over the years: Egypt signed peace with Israel in 1979¹, and Jordan in 1994²⁶. Since then they have often sat on the mediators' side.
Main moments: Egypt was a witness to the Cairo agreement of 1994²⁷, and both were witnesses to the Interim Agreement²⁸ and to the Sharm el-Sheikh Memorandum of 1999²⁹. In October 2025 the indirect talks between Israel and Hamas were held in Sharm el-Sheikh³⁰, and Egypt signed there the document guaranteeing the ceasefire³. In August 2026 Jordan hosted an Israeli–Syrian meeting³¹.
What it brings: Egypt: a border with Gaza, a meeting place and a guarantee. Under Resolution 2803 the stabilization force is to secure the Strip's borders in coordination with Egypt and with Israel¹⁶. Jordan: a special role in the Muslim holy shrines in Jerusalem, which Israel undertook to respect in the peace treaty²⁶.
What critics say: The cost was recorded at the time: the Arab League suspended Egypt in 1979²⁰, and 23 deputies in Jordan's parliament voted against the treaty³².
Where it stands in 2026: As of October 2026 both treaties are in force, but political relations are at a low point: Jordan and Israel have no ambassadors in each other's capitals³³, and according to reports from May 2025 and January 2026 Egypt has no ambassador in Tel Aviv³⁴³⁵.

A state that has already signed peace with Israel can talk to both sides. That is the main asset of Cairo and of Amman.

Text of the Israel–Jordan peace treaty on the UN website

Qatar and Turkey

Mediators and guarantors of the Gaza ceasefire

Role over the years: Mediators between parties that do not talk directly. Resolution 2803 names Qatar, Egypt and Turkey as the states that helped bring about the ceasefire¹⁶.
Main moments: In 2008 Turkey mediated indirect talks between Israel and Syria³⁶, which collapsed in December of that year³⁷. On 13 October 2025 the leaders of Qatar and Turkey, with the United States and Egypt, signed a document guaranteeing the Gaza ceasefire³.
What it brings: A political guarantee for an arrangement the parties themselves did not sign: Israel and Hamas are not signatories of the Sharm el-Sheikh document³⁸.
What critics say: Tension between Israel and Turkey over the Turkish military presence in Syria weighs on the talks between Israel and Syria³¹¹⁹.
Where it stands in 2026: As of October 2026 full-scale war has not resumed in Gaza, but phase two is stalled: Hamas has not been disarmed and the stabilization force has not deployed¹⁷.

A third state's guarantee does not ensure implementation. It adds an address to turn to when the arrangement gets stuck.

Resolution 2803 and the annexed plan on the UN website

The United Nations

Resolutions that set the framework, and forces that watch the lines

Role over the years: Mediators, observers and resolutions since 1948. UN mediator Ralph Bunche led the talks on the armistice agreements of 1949³⁹.
Main moments: Security Council resolutions: 242 (1967) – withdrawal of Israeli forces from territories occupied in the war, an end to the state of belligerency and respect for the sovereignty of every state in the area⁴⁰. 338 (1973) – a ceasefire and negotiations to implement 242⁴¹. 1397 (2002) – a vision of two states, Israel and Palestine⁴². 1515 (2003) – endorsement of the Roadmap⁴³. 1701 (2006) – the cessation of hostilities in Lebanon⁴⁴. 2803 (2025) – endorsement of the US plan for Gaza, by 13 votes with China and Russia abstaining¹⁶⁴⁵.
What it brings: International legitimacy and forces on the ground: the observers of UNTSO, set up following Resolution 50 of 1948⁴⁶; UNDOF on the Golan since 1974⁴⁷; and UNIFIL in Lebanon since 1978⁴⁸. In 2025 the General Assembly endorsed the New York Declaration by 142 votes to 10, with 12 abstentions²³.
What critics say: The Israeli government utterly rejected the New York Declaration⁴⁹, and the US representative called it a gift to Hamas⁵⁰. On the other hand, resolutions often stay on paper: Resolution 1701 is only partly implemented⁵¹.
Where it stands in 2026: UNDOF's mandate has been extended to 31 December 2026⁵². UNIFIL is due to end its operations on the same day, and Lebanon has asked for this to be reconsidered⁵¹⁵³. The authorisation for the Board of Peace and the stabilization force in Gaza runs until 31 December 2027¹⁶.

The UN has no army of its own and no way to impose an agreement. Its strength lies in texts that others return to: from Camp David to the recognition letters of 1993, many documents on this site rest on Resolutions 242 and 338⁵⁴⁵⁵.

Text of Security Council Resolution 242

Europe

Host, donor and Quartet member; in recent years also recognising the State of Palestine

Role over the years: European states hosted channels the parties could not hold at home, and the European Union is a member of the Quartet alongside the United States, Russia and the UN⁵⁶.
Main moments: Spain hosted the Madrid Conference⁹. Norway hosted the secret channel that led to Oslo². The EU envoy Miguel Moratinos wrote the main record of the Taba talks⁵⁷. The Geneva Initiative was presented under the auspices of the Swiss government⁵⁸. France announced, with the United States, the cessation of hostilities in Lebanon in 2024¹², and co-chaired the New York conference with Saudi Arabia in 2025²³.
What it brings: Money and recognition. The European Commission describes the EU as the biggest provider of external assistance to the Palestinians⁵⁹. France takes part in the monitoring Mechanism in Lebanon¹². In September 2025 France, the United Kingdom and other states recognised the State of Palestine⁶⁰.
What critics say: Israel recalled its envoys from Spain, Ireland and Norway after they recognised the State of Palestine in 2024⁶¹, and rejected the New York Declaration on the grounds that it ignores Hamas's responsibility for the continuation of the war⁴⁹.
Where it stands in 2026: According to Security Council Report, in September 2026 France and the United Kingdom, together with Canada, announced bans on imports of settlement goods⁶².

Europe is not a single actor: some states hosted quiet channels, some recognised the State of Palestine, and EU institutions work alongside them.

Government of Norway: Norway's involvement in the peace process

Russia, and other hosts

Co-sponsor of Madrid, witness to Oslo and Quartet member

Role over the years: The Soviet Union co-sponsored the Madrid Conference with the United States, and the multilateral track opened in Moscow⁹. Russia is a member of the Quartet⁵⁶.
Main moments: Russian Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev signed the Declaration of Principles as a witness⁶³. Russia was also a witness to the Cairo agreement²⁷ and to the Interim Agreement²⁸.
What it brings: A voice in the Security Council: in the vote on Resolution 2803 Russia abstained, together with China⁴⁵.
What critics say: The United Kingdom explained its refusal to join the Board of Peace in Gaza partly by Russia's participation in it¹⁵.
Where it stands in 2026: According to Security Council Report, Russia and China see Israel's opposition to the 15-point roadmap as the main obstacle to implementing the plan in Gaza⁶².

There were other quiet hosts too. In 1977 Morocco was the setting for the secret contacts between Moshe Dayan and Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Hassan Tuhami that preceded Sadat's visit to Jerusalem⁶⁴.

Office of the UN Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process: the Quartet

The best-known plans at a glance

Year	Plan	Who proposed it	The core idea in one line	What became of it	Page on this site
1967	Security Council Resolution 242	The Security Council, unanimously	Withdrawal of Israeli forces from territories occupied in the war, in return for an end to the state of belligerency and respect for the sovereignty of every state in the area⁴⁰	Remains the basis that later documents rest on⁵⁴⁵⁵	No separate page; see the Camp David Accords
1978	The Camp David autonomy framework	Egypt and Israel, mediated by Carter	Palestinian self-government in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip for five years, followed by permanent status⁵⁴	Not implemented; the autonomy talks produced little⁸	The Camp David Accords
1982	The Reagan plan	US President Ronald Reagan	Palestinian self-government in the West Bank and Gaza in association with Jordan; no independent Palestinian state and no Israeli annexation; a settlement freeze⁶⁵	Remained a US proposal; this site has not researched the responses to it	No page on this site
1991	The Madrid Conference	The United States and the Soviet Union	Direct talks between Israel, its neighbours and the Palestinians, on a bilateral track and a multilateral track⁹	No agreement was signed; Oslo and peace with Jordan grew out of its tracks⁹	The Madrid Conference
1993	The Declaration of Principles (Oslo)	Israel and the PLO, through a Norwegian channel	Temporary Palestinian self-government, with the hard issues deferred to permanent-status negotiations⁶³	The interim arrangements still operate by default; no permanent settlement was reached⁶²	Oslo I
2000	The Clinton Parameters	US President Bill Clinton	A Palestinian state on most of the West Bank, Jerusalem divided by neighbourhoods, and a refugee solution centred on the Palestinian state⁶⁶	Both sides accepted them with reservations⁶⁷; no agreement was signed⁶⁶	The Clinton Parameters
2002	The Arab Peace Initiative	The Arab League, on a Saudi proposal	Full withdrawal to the 1967 lines, a Palestinian state and an agreed solution for the refugees, in return for normal relations with all Arab states²¹	No Israeli government has adopted it²²; it remains an offer	The Arab Peace Initiative
2003	The Roadmap	The Quartet	Three phases: an end to violence and a settlement freeze, a state with provisional borders, and permanent status by 2005⁶⁸	The Security Council endorsed it in Resolution 1515⁴³; it was not implemented⁶⁸	The Roadmap
2003	The Geneva Initiative	An unofficial team led by Yossi Beilin and Yasser Abed Rabbo	A detailed text of a permanent-status agreement: two states based on the 1967 lines, with equal land swaps⁶⁹	No government has adopted it⁵⁸	The Geneva Initiative
2007	The Annapolis conference	The United States as host	Olmert and Abbas pledge continuous negotiations and an agreement by the end of 2008⁷⁰	The talks ended without an agreement⁷¹	Annapolis
2013–2014	The Kerry talks	US Secretary of State John Kerry	Nine months of Israeli–Palestinian negotiations⁷²	Collapsed in April 2014; each side blames the other⁷²	The Kerry talks
2020	The Trump plan ("Peace to Prosperity")	The US administration	Israeli sovereignty over about 30% of the West Bank, and a demilitarised, conditional Palestinian state¹³	The Palestinians rejected it; it was not implemented¹³	The Trump plan
2020	The Abraham Accords	The United States, Israel, the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain; later Morocco	Relations established between Israel and Arab states; the Palestinian question stayed outside the documents²⁵	As of October 2026 the framework is active; Saudi Arabia has not joined⁷³²⁴	The Abraham Accords
2025	The New York Declaration	A conference co-chaired by France and Saudi Arabia; the General Assembly	Time-bound steps towards a Palestinian state alongside Israel; Hamas hands over its weapons and gives up power in Gaza²³	Endorsed by 142 votes to 10; Israel and the United States rejected it²³⁴⁹	The New York Declaration
2025	The US plan for Gaza, 20 points	President Trump; endorsed by Resolution 2803	A ceasefire, release of the hostages, disarming Hamas, transitional governance and an international stabilization force¹⁶	Phase one was carried out; as of October 2026 phase two is stalled¹⁷	The Gaza ceasefire

What almost everyone says they want

An end to war and to attacks on civilians: In 2003 the Security Council demanded an immediate end to all violence and terrorism⁴³. The New York Declaration condemns both the attack of 7 October and Israeli attacks on civilians in Gaza²³. Resolution 2803 calls on all parties to maintain the ceasefire¹⁶.
Security for Israel: Resolution 242 speaks of respect for the sovereignty of every state in the area⁴⁰. The Arab initiative offers to consider the conflict ended²¹. The New York Declaration demands that Hamas hand over its weapons and offers international security guarantees²³.
A Palestinian state alongside Israel – almost everyone, not everyone: The Security Council affirmed the vision of two states in 2002 and 2003⁴²⁴³. In the General Assembly 142 states backed the New York Declaration, 10 voted against, among them Israel and the United States, and 12 abstained²³⁴⁹. The Israeli government rejects the declaration⁴⁹. The US plan speaks only of conditions that may in future allow a credible pathway to statehood, with no timetable and no commitment¹⁶⁷⁴.
Normal relations between Israel and the Arab states: The Arab initiative offers them in return for withdrawal and a Palestinian state²¹. Following the Abraham Accords, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Morocco established or resumed relations with Israel without that condition²⁵⁷³. The New York Declaration also includes normalisation²³, and Trump is pressing Saudi Arabia to join²⁴.
Rebuilding Gaza, without Hamas rule: Both the New York Declaration and the US plan say Hamas will not govern the Strip²³¹⁶. The UN and the EU assessed reconstruction needs at 71.4 billion dollars over a decade; in September 2026 the Board of Peace presented a 2.45 billion dollar plan¹⁷.

And where they differ

What comes first: The Arab initiative and Saudi Arabia: first a path to a Palestinian state, then normalisation²¹²⁴. Under the Abraham Accords relations were established without that condition²⁵. The Palestinian leadership said the accords had bypassed it¹⁴.
Borders and Jerusalem: The Arab initiative and the New York Declaration rest on the 1967 lines, and the initiative names East Jerusalem as the Palestinian capital²¹²³. The 2020 Trump plan proposed Israeli sovereignty over about 30% of the West Bank and left nearly all of Jerusalem with Israel¹³. The Clinton Parameters proposed a division by neighbourhoods⁶⁶.
Who governs Gaza and who secures it: The US plan: a Board of Peace, a Palestinian committee of technocrats and an international stabilization force¹⁶. The New York Declaration: the Palestinian Authority²³. Netanyahu opposes a role for the Authority in the Strip⁷⁴. Israel demands disarmament before withdrawal, and Hamas demands withdrawal before it gives up its weapons⁷⁵.
The place of the UN: Most states acted through the General Assembly; Israel and the United States rejected its decision⁴⁹⁵⁰. In Lebanon the Lebanese government asked for UNIFIL to stay, and Israel's ambassador to the UN said the Council's decision to end the mandate should be respected⁵¹⁵³.
The status of the settlements: Resolution 2334 of 2016 says the settlements have no legal validity and demands a halt to all settlement activity; the United States abstained in the vote⁷⁶. The 2020 Trump plan proposed Israeli sovereignty over the settlements¹³. In September 2026 Canada, France and the United Kingdom announced bans on imports of settlement goods⁶².
Who may mediate: The Palestinians rejected a US plan drawn up without them¹³. Israel recalled its envoys from European states that recognised the State of Palestine⁶¹. China and Russia abstained in the vote on the US plan for Gaza⁴⁵, and the United Kingdom stayed out of the Board of Peace¹⁵.

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